Friday, 23 March 2018
Sunday, 22 January 2017
TOLMANS SIGN GESTALT
Tolman'sSign Learning
The
theory of Edward C. Tolman
(1886-1959) was called purposive behaviorism in his major systematic work, Purposive behavior
in
animals and men (1932b). Later he (and others) called it a
sign-gestalt theory, a sign-significate theory, or an expectancy theory.
These later terms all emphasize the cognitive nature of the theory,
which distin-guishes it in certain respects from the stimulus-response theories
of Thorndike, Guthrie, Skinner, and Hull. The designation sign learning provides a
satisfactory short name, abbreviating sign-gestalt and sign-significate, while
calling attention to the cognitive reference within the theory.
Tolman acknowledged the complex
affiliations of his system-with Watson's behaviorism, McDougall's hormic
psychology, Woodworth's dynamic psychology, and gestalt psychology (in both
classical and Lewin's forms). He later recognized a number of parallels between
his system and the probabilistic functionalism developed independently by
Brunswik (Tolman and Brunswik, 1935). Still later, the influence of
psychoanalysis began to be noticeable (1942, 1943). Because of these complex
affiliations it is appropriate to consider his system following the treatment of other behaviorisms, and before turning
to the nonbehavioristic theories.
Despite
some shifts in vocabulary, Tolman held firm to his main tenets during the
twenty-seven years between the time his book appeared and his death.
1. His
system was a genuine behaviorism, and as such rigidly
rejected introspection as a method and "raw feels" as data for
psychological sci-
ence. When he made reference to
consciousness, to inventive ideation, and the like, he was talking about
interpretations of observed behavior. He did not accept "verbal
report" as a dodge by which to smuggle con-sciousness in through the back
door.
2. The
system was a molar, rather than a molecular, behaviorism. An act of behavior has distinctive properties all its own, to be identified
and described irrespective of whatever muscular, glandular, or neural
proc-esses underlie it. The molecular facts of physics and physiology upon which behavior rests
have identifying properties of their own, which are not the properties of
behavior as molar. This meant for Tolman an inde-pendence from physiology, a characteristic which he shared
with several of the writers whom we have considered.
3. The
system was a purposivism, but of a
sort to avoid the implica-tions of a teleological metaphysics. It was a
purposivism because it recognized that behavior is regulated in accordance with
objectively deter-minable ends. It was not mentalistic; purposes are not those
of a self-conscious mind. I t is not in agreement with teleological points of
view which make effects take precedence over and determine their causes.
The strongest rejection was of
American structuralism, because struc-turalism was dependent upon introspection
of the most offensive sort, that known as Beschreibung. Watsonian behaviorism
was almost as vigor-ously rejected, because it was not only molecular but
tended to neglect the problems of goal-seekingbehavior.
THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION
Behavior
as Molar
The descriptive properties of
molar behavior are the most general characteristics of behavior which would impress
themselves upon an in-telligent onlooker without presuppositions and before any
attempt to explain how the behavior comes about.
First, behavior is goal-directed.
It is always a getting-toward something, or a getting-away from something. The
most significant description of any behavior is what the organism is doing,
what it is up to, where it is going. The
cat is trying to get out of the box, the carpenter is building a house (or
earning a living), the musician is seeking acclaim for his vir-tuosity. The particular movements involved
are less descriptive of the molar behavior than is the goal toward which or
away from which the movements lead. This feature characterizes molar behavior
as purposive.
Second, the behavior makes use of
environmental supports as means-objects toward the goal. The world in which
behavior goes on is a world
1 In this
Tolman follows Perry (1918).
S
(OBO) Cumulative nature and number of trials2
P
Pattern of preceding and
succeeding maze units
11. Individual
DifferenceVariables
H
Heredity
A Age
T Previous training
E Special endocrine, drug or vitamin conditions
It is possible to study the
effect of such variables on resulting behavior. The usual learning curve is a
plot of the functional relationship under stated conditions. These are the
behavioral "facts" about learning. It is the effort to explain the facts
which leads to theories.
Tolman's explanation rests on intervening variables.
These are in-ferred processes between the independent variables (stimuli, etc.)
and the dependent variables (responses, etc.). The preliminary list as
pre-sented coordinates one intervening variable with each of the environmen-tal
variables.
|
Intervening Variable
|
Environmental
Variable
|
|
|
Demand
|
correlated with
|
Maintenance schedule
|
|
Appetite
|
correlated with
|
Appropriateness of goal object
|
|
Differentiation
|
correlated with
|
Types and modes of stimuli provided
|
|
Motor
skill
|
correlated with
|
Types of motor response required
|
|
Hypotheses
|
correlated with
|
Cumulative nature and number of
|
|
|
|
trials
|
|
Biases
|
correlated with
|
Pattern of
preceding and succeeding
|
|
|
|
maze units
|
Although the intervening variables
may sound subjective, in principle each can be given objective definition and
measurement through a defin-ing experiment in which everything else is held
constant except the cor-relative environmental variable while that one is
systematically varied. Demand, for example, may be expected to increase with
the number of hours since feeding, but the relationship between food
deprivation and demand is not a simple one. It must be studied empirically. The
same holds for each of the intervening variables.
Having thus established a basis
for inferring the value of the interven-ing variable from the antecedent
conditions, the next stage in theory con-struction is to find the equations
relating intervening variables to behav-
2 2 (OBO) i s
a shoithand formula which means
some consequence or summation of previous expeiiences in which
one occasion (0) has led through behavior (B) to another
occasion (0).The occasions are such features as a choice-point, a
goal at the left, and so on.
|
195
|
ioral outcomes, as these intervening variables
simultaneously take on different values.
In spite
of the clear outline of what a systematic theory ought to be, Tolman nowhere
attempted quantitative predictions paralleling those of Hull, so that his conjectures
have not in that sense been put to the testes This does not mean that his experiments were
unrelated to his theory. There were, in fact, many predictions, but they assert
that one path will be preferred to another, that under one set of circumstances
the problem will be easier than under another set, and so on. The dimensional
analy-sis which completes the function was not provided, and Hull's
conscien-tious efforts are instructive in showing how difficult that task
proves to be.
SIGN LEARNING
Sign Learning as an Alternative to Response
Learning
Stimulus-response theories, while stated with
different degrees of sophistication, imply that the organism is goaded along a path by internal and external
stimuli, learning the correct movement sequences so that they are released
under appropriate conditions of drive and environmen-tal stimulation. The
alternative possibility is that the learner is following signs to a goal, is
learning his way about, is following a sort of map-in other words, is learning
not movements but meanings. This is the con-tention of Tolman's theory of sign
learning. The organism learns sign-significate relations; it learns a behavior
route, not a movement pattern. Many learning situations do not permit a dear
distinction between these two possibilities. If there is a single path with food at the end and
the organism runs faster at each opportunity, there is no way of telling
whether his responses are being stamped in by reinforcement or whether he is
guided by his immanent purposes and cognitions.
Because both stimulus-response
and sign learning so often predict the same behavioral outcome, it is necessary
to design special experiments in which it is possible to favor one theory over
the other. Three situations give strong support to the sign-learning
alternative. These are experi-ments on reward expectancy, on place learning,
and on latent learning.
1. Reward
expectancy. One of the earliest and most striking observa-tions
on reward expectancy was that of Tinklepaugh (1928). I n his ex-periment, food
was placed under one of two containers while the monkey was looking but
prevented from immediate access to the cans and food. Later the monkey was
permitted to choose between the containers and
Thursday, 19 January 2017
BLOG
A blog is also known as weblog.It is
a personal online diary or a journel which allows one to share thoughs and
ideas in a blog,one can add video, pictures and music.one can also read
comments that a a visitor leaves on the
blog.The best part is that one does not have to be computer literate.The people
who create blog are called blogger.Blog is a very cheap medium on the internet
through which one can express feelings and write according to one’s wish about
anything that one likes.
A blog gives us the freedom of
writing articles.users can give their views about the articles and you can know
your mistake.specialy those people who has no website but wants to give
information to others about themselves and
wants to share his opinion about others ,can use this to their advantage.
e mail
e mail
e mail is
the shortened form for electronic mail, the transmission of messages over
communication network. These messages can be notes entered from the key board or
attachments from a computer. They enable
users to send electronic mail anywhere in the world.e mail are fast, flexible
and reliable
An e mail address
is usually made by the user in order to communicate.
Thursday, 5 January 2017
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sources Acquiring Knowledge
1.3 Meaning, Steps and Scope of Educational Research
1.4 Scientific Method, aims and characteristics of research as a scientific activity
1.5 Ethical considerations in Educational Research
1.6 Paradigms of Educational research
1.7 Types of Research
1.7.a Fundamental
1.7.b Applied Research
1.7.c. Action Research
1.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
To explain the concept of Educational Research
To describe the scope of Educational Research
To state the purpose of Educational Research
To explain what is scientific enquiry.
To explain importance of theory development.
To explain relationship among science, education and educational research.
To Identity fundamental research
To Identity applied research
To Identify action research
To Differentiate between fundamental, applied, and action research
To Identify different paradigms of research
1.1 INTRODUCTION : Research purifies human life. It improves its quality. It is search for knowledge. If shows how to Solve any problem scientifically. It is a careful enquiry through search for any kind of Knowledge. It is a journey from known to unknown. It is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge in any kind of discipline. When it Seeks a solution of any educational problem it leads to educational research. Curiosity, inquisitiveness are natural gifts secured by a man. They inspire him to quest, increase his thirst for knowledge / truth. After trial and error, he worked systematically in the direction of the desired goal. His adjustment and coping with situation makes him successful in his task. Thereby he learns something‘s, becomes wise and prepares his own scientific procedure while performing the same task for second time. So is there any relationship among science, education and educational Research? ―Research is the voyage of discovery‖. It is the quest for answers to unsolved problems. Research is required in any field to come up with new theories or modify, accept, or nullify the existing theory. From time immemorial it has been seen so many discoveries and inventions took place through research and world has got so many new theories which help the human being to solve his problems. Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, JC Bose, John Dewey, Skinner, Piaget Research like have given us theories which may cause educational progress research needs expertise. 1.2 SOURCES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE : From the time we were born and the present day, each one of us has accumulated a body of knowledge. Curiosity, the desire to learn about one‘s environment and the desire to improve one‘s life through problem-solving is natural to all human beings. For this purpose, human beings depend on several methods / sources of acquiring knowledge as follows:
1. Learned Authority : Human beings refer to an authority such as a teacher, a parent or the boss or an expert or consultant and seek his / her advice. Such an authority may be based on knowledge or experience or both.
For example, if a child has difficulty in learning a particular subject, he / she may consult a teacher. Learned authority could also be a book / dictionary / encyclopaedia / journal / web-site on internet.
2. Tradition : Human beings easily accept many of the traditions of their culture or forefathers. For example, in matters of food, dress, communications, religion, home remedies for minor ailments, the way a friend will react to an invitation, one relies on family traditions. On the other hand, students, in case of admission criteria and procedures, examination patterns and procedures, methods of maintaining discipline, co-curricular activities, acceptable manner of greeting teachers and peers rely on school traditions. Long established customs or practices are popular sources of acquiring knowledge. This is also known as tenacity which implies holding on to a perspective without any consideration of alternatives.
3. Experience : Our own prior personal experiences in matters of problem-solving or understanding educational phenomena is the most common, familiar and fundamental source of knowledge.
4. Scientific Method : In order to comprehend and accept learning acquired through these sources, we use certain approaches which are as follows:
(a) Empiricism : It implies relying on what our senses tell us. Through a combination of hearing and seeing we come to know the sound of a train. i.e. through these two senses, we learn to associate specific sounds with specific objects. Our senses also enable us to compare objects / phenomena / events. They provide us with the means for studying and understanding relationships between various concepts (eg. level of education and income).
(b) Rationalism : It includes mental reflection. it places emphasis on ideas rather than material substances. if we see logical interconnectedness between two or more things, we accept those things. For example, we may reason that conducive school / college environment is expected to lead to better teacher performance.
(c) Fideism : It implies the use of our beliefs, emotions or gut reactions including religion. We believe in God because our parents told us though we had not sensed God, seen or heard him nor had concluded that that his existence is logically proved.
1.3 MEANING, STEPS AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH : MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH : Educational Research as nothing but cleansing of educational Research is nothing but cleansing of educational process. Many experts think Educational Research as under- According to Mouly, ―Educational Research is the systematic application of scientific method for solving for solving educational problem.‖ Travers thinks, ―Educational Research is the activity for developing science of behavior in educational situations. It allows the educator to achieve his goals effectively.‖ According to Whitney, ―Educational Research aims at finding out solution of educational problems by using scientific philosophical method.‖ Thus, Educational Research is to solve educational problem in systematic and scientific manner, it is to understand, explain, predict and control human behaviour. Educational Research Characterizes as follows :
- It is highly purposeful.
- It deals with educational problems regarding students and teachers as well.
- It is precise, objective, scientific and systematic process of investigation.
- It attempts to organize data quantitatively and qualitatively to arrive at statistical inferences.
- It discovers new facts in new perspective. i. e. It generates new knowledge.
- It is based on some philosophic theory.
- It depends on the researchers ability, ingenuity and experience for its interpretation and conclusions.
- It needs interdisciplinary approach for solving educational problem.
- It demands subjective interpretation and deductive reasoning in some cases.
- It uses classrooms, schools, colleges department of education as the laboratory for conducting researches.
STEPS OF RESEARCH : The various steps involved in the research process can be summarised as follows ; Step 1 : Identifying the Gap in Knowledge The researcher, on the basis of experience and observation realises that some students in the class do not perform well in the examination. So he / she poses an unanswered question : ―Which factors are associated with students‘ academic performance?‖ Step 2 : Identifying the Antecedent / Causes On the basis of experience, observation and a review of related literature, he / she realises that students who are either very anxious or not at all anxious do not perform well in the examination. Thus he / she identifies anxiety as one of the factors that could be associated with students‘ academic performance. Step 3 : Stating the Goals The researcher now states the goals of the study :
1. To ascertain the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.
2. To ascertain the gender differences in the anxiety and academic performance of students.
3. To ascertain the gender difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.
Step 4 : Formulating Hypotheses The researcher may state his / her hypotheses as follows:
1. There is a significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance of students.
2. There is a significant gender difference in the anxiety and academic performance of students.
3. There is a significant gender difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students.
Step 5 : Collecting Relevant Information The researcher uses appropriate tools and techniques to measure anxiety and academic performance of students, selects a sample of students and collects data from them. Step 6 : Testing the Hypotheses He / she now uses appropriate statistical techniques to verify and test the hypotheses of the study stated in Step 4. Step 7 : Interpreting the Findings He / she interprets the findings in terms of whether the relationship between anxiety and academic performance is positive or negative, linear or curvilinear. He / she finds that this relationship is curvilinear i.e. when a student‘s anxiety is either very low or very high, his / her academic performance is found to be low. But when a student‘s anxiety is moderate, his / her academic performance is found to be high. He / she now tries to explain this finding based on logic and creativity. Step 8 : Comparing the Findings with Prior researchers’ Findings At this step, the researcher tries to find out whether his / her conclusions match those of the prior researches or not. If not, then the researcher attempts to find out why conclusions do not match with other researches by analysing prior studies further. Step 9 : Modifying Theory
On the basis of steps 7 and 8, the researcher speculates that anxiety alone cannot influence academic performance of students. There could be a third factor which influences the relationship between anxiety and academic performance of students. This third factor could be study habits of students. For instance, students who have very low level of anxiety may have neglected their studies through out the year and hence their academic performance is poor. On the other hand, students who have very high level of anxiety may
not be able to remember what they have learnt or cannot concentrate on studies due to stress or may fall sick very often and hence cannot study properly. Hence their academic performance is poor. However, students with a moderate level of anxiety are motivated enough to study regularly and systematically all through the year and hence their academic performance is high. Thus, the loosely structured theory on students‘ academic performance needs to incorporate one more variable, namely, study habits of students. In other words, it needs to be modified.
SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH : Name of Educational Research changes with the gradual development occurs with respect to knowledge and technology, so Educational Research needs to extend its horizon. Being scientific study of educational process, it involves : - individuals (Student, teachers, educational managers, parents.) - institutions (Schools, colleges, research – institutes) It discovers facts and relationship in order to make educational process more effective. It relates social sciences like education. It includes process like investigation, planning (design) collecting data, processing of data, their analysis, interpretation and drawing inferences. It covers areas from formal education and conformal education as well
LET US SUM UP : - Educational Research is systematic application of scientific method for solving educational problems, regarding students and teachers as well. - Results democratic education are slow and sometimes defective. So it needs Educational Research to solve educational problems. - Educational Research involves individuals like teachers / students and educational institutions. It covers areas from formal education to nonformal education.
- Educational Research solves educational problems, purifies educative process and generates new knowledge. UNIT END EXERCISE : (1) What is meant by Educational Research? (2) What is the need of Educational Research? (3) What is its scope? (4) State the purpose of Education Research? Question-1 (i) to solve education problem (ii) scientific method (iii) interdisciplinary approach (iv) classroom, school, college, department of education. Question-2 (v) Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology, History, Economics. (vi) Since it imparts knowledge (vii) It explains working of human mind/growth, educational program (viii) Nonformal education, educational technology. (ix) Curriculum, textbooks, teaching methods. (x) Teachers, Students, Educational managers, Parents. (xi) School, college, research-institutes. (xii) Updated knowledge, imagination, insight, scientific attitude. (xiii) to generate new knowledge. References / Suggested readings. 1) Best Kahn (1955), Research in Education, New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India. 2) Kaul L. (1984) Methodology of Education research, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House. 11
1.4 SCIENTIFIC METHOD, AIMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH AS A SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY : RELATIONSHIP AMONG SCIENCE, EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH : Science helps to find out the truth behind the phenomenon. It is an approach to gathering of knowledge rather than mere subject matter. It has following two main functions: - to develop a theory. - to deduce hypothesis from that theory. Scientist uses an empirical approach for data collection and rational approach for development of the theory. Research shows a way to solve life – problems scientifically. It is a reliable tool for progress of knowledge. Being systematic and methodological, it is treated as a science. It also helps to derive the truth behind the knowledge. It offers methods of improving quality of the process and the product as well. Ultimately, Science and research go hand in hand to find out solution of the problem. Since Philosophy offers a sound basis to education, Education is considered as an art. However, Scientific progress makes education inclining towards a science rather than an art. Science belongs to precision and exactness. It suffers hardly from any variable. But education as a social science suffers from many variables, so goes away from exactness. Educational Research tries to make educative process more scientific. But education is softening from multivariable, so it can‘t be as exact as physical sciences. If the study is systematically designed to achieve educational goals, it will be an educational research. Let us summaries this discussion with Good‘s thought – ―If we wish wisdom, we must expect science. If we wish in increase in wisdom, we must expect research‖
Knowledge is educator‘s need. Curiosity and thirst for search makes him to follow scientific way wisely. Indirectly, he plays a role
of educational researcher. Ultimately he is able to solve the educational problem and generate new knowledge. All the three aspects. (Science, education and educational research) have truth as a common basis, More or less, they need exactness and precision. AIMS AND CHARACTERISTICS : An enquiry is a natural technique for a search. But when it‘s used systematically and scientifically, it takes the form of a method. So scientific enquiry is also known as Scientific Method. Bacon‘s inductive method contributes to human knowledge. It is difficult to solve many problems either by inductive or by deductive method. So Charles Darwin seeks happy blending of inductive and deductive method in his scientific method. In this method, initially knowledge gained from previous knowledge, experience, reflective thinking and observation is unorganized. Later on it proceeds inductively from part to whole and particular to general and ultimately to meaningful hypothesis. Thereafter, it proceeds deductively from whole to part, general to particular and hypothesis to logical conclusion. This method is different from the methods of knowledge – generation like trial and error, experience, authority and intuition. It is a parallel to Dewey‘s reflective thinking; because the researcher himself is engrossed in reflective thinking while conducting research. Scientific method follows five steps as under : Identification and definition of the problem: The researcher states the identified problem in such a manner that it can b solved through experimentation or observation. Formulation of hypothesis: It allows to have an intelligent guess for the solution of the problem. Implication of hypothesis through deductive reasoning : Here, the researcher deduces the implications of suggested hypothesis, which may be true.
Collection and analysis of evidence: The researcher is expected here to test the deduced implications of the hypothesis by collecting concerned evidence related to them through experimentation and observation. Verification of the hypothesis: Later on the researcher verifies whether the evidence support hypothesis. If it supports, the hypothesis is accepted, if it doesn‘t the hypothesis is not accepted and later on it is modified if it is necessary. A peculiar feature of this method is not to prove the hypothesis as an absolute truth but to conclude that the evidence does or doesn‘t support the hypothesis. SUM UP : - Scientific enquiry / Scientific method is happy blending of Inductive and deductive method. Initially it proceeds from part to whole to state meaningful hypothesis. Later on it proceeds from whole to part and hypothesis to logical conclusion. - A theory is general explanation of phenomenon. It can e refined and modified as factual knowledge. It is developed on the basis of results of scientific method. 1.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF RESEARCH : Research exerts a significant influence over educational systems. Hence a researcher needs to adhere to an ethical code of conduct. These ethical considerations are as follows :
While a researcher may have some obligations to his / her client in case of sponsored research where the sponsoring agency has given him / her financial aid for conducting the research, he / she has obligations to the users, the larger society, the subjects (sample / respondents) and professional colleagues. He / she should not discard data that can lead to unfavourable conclusions and interpretations for the sponsoring agency.
The researcher should maintain strict confidentiality about the information obtained from the respondents. No information about the personal details of the respondents should be revealed in any of the records, reports or to other individuals without the respondents‘ permission.
The researcher should not make use of hidden cameras, microphones, tape-recorders or observers without the respondents‘ permission. Similarly, private correspondence should not be used without the concerned respondent‘s permission.
In an experimental study, when volunteers are used as subjects, the researcher should explain the procedures completely (eg. the experiment will go on for six months) along with the risks involved and the demands that he / she would make upon the participants of the study (such as the subjects will be required to stay back for one hour after school hours etc.). If possible, the subjects should be informed about the purpose of the experiment / research. While dealing with school children (minors) or mentally challenged students, parents‘ or guardians‘ consent should be obtained. This phenomenon is known as ‗informed consent‘.
The researcher should accept the fact that the subjects have the freedom to decline to participate or to withdraw from the experiment.
In order to ensure the subjects‘ inclusion and continuation in the experiment, the researcher should never try to make undue efforts giving favourable treatment after the experiment, more (additional marks) in a school subject, money and so on.
In an experimental research which may have a temporary or permanent effect on the subjects, the researcher must take all precautions to protect the subjects from mental and physical harm, danger and stress.
The researcher should make his / her data available to peers for scrutiny.
The respondents / subjects / participants should be provided with the reasons for the experimental procedures as well as the findings of the study if they so demand.
The researcher should give due credit to all those who have helped him / her in the research procedure, tool construction, data collection, data analysis or preparation of the research report.
If at all the researcher has made some promise to the participants, it must be honoured and fulfilled.
1.6 PARADIGMS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH : The idea of social construction of rationality can be pursued by considering Kuhn‘s idea of scientific paradigm. Thomas Kuhn, himself a historian of science, contributed to a fruitful development in the philosophy of science with his book ―The Structure of Scientific Revolutions‖ published in 1962. It brought into focus two streams of thinking about what could be regarded as ‗scientific‘, the Aristotelian tradition with its teleological approach and the Galilean with its causal and mechanistic approach. It introduced the concept of ‗paradigm‘ into the philosophical debate. Definition and Meaning of Paradigm of Research : ―Paradigm‖ derives from the Greek verb for ―exhibiting side by side‖. In lexica it is given with the translations ―examples‖ or table of changes in form and differences in form. Thus, Paradigms are ways of organizing information so that fundamental, abstract relationships can be clearly understood.
The idea of paradigm directs attention to science as having recognized patterns of commitments, questions, methods, and procedures that underlie and give direction to scientific work. Kuhn focuses upon the paradigmatic elements of research when he suggests that science has emotional and political as well as cognitive elements. We can distinguish the underlying assumptions of a paradigm by viewing its discourse as having different layers of abstractions. The layers exists simultaneously and are superimposed upon one another. The concept of paradigm provides a way to consider the divergence in vision, custom, and tradition. It enables us to consider science as having different sets of assumptions, commitments, procedures and theories of social affairs. A paradigm determines the criteria according to which one selects and defines problems for inquiry and how one approaches them theoretically and methodologically. A paradigm could be regarded as a cultural man made object, reflecting the dominant notions about scientific behaviour in a particular scientific community, be it national or international, and at a particular pointing time. Paradigms determine scientific approaches and procedures which stand out as exemplary to the new generation of scientists – as long as they do not oppose them. A ―revolution‖ in the world of scientific paradigms occurs when one or several researchers at a given time encounter anomalies or differences, for instance, make observations, which in a striking way to not fit the prevailing paradigm. Such anomalies can give rise to a crisis after which the universe under study is perceived in an entirely new light. Previous theories and facts become subject to thorough rethinking and revaluation. History of Paradigms of Research :
Educational research faces a particular problem, since education, is not a well defined, unitary discipline but a practical art. Research into educational problems is conducted by scholars with many disciplinary affiliations. Most of them have a background in psychology or other behavioural sciences, but quite a few of them have a humanistic background in philosophy and history. Thus, there
cannot be any prevailing paradigm or ‗normal science‘ in the very multifaceted field of educational research. However, when empirical research conducted by behavioural scientists, particularly in the Anglo-Saxon countries, in the 1960‘s and early 1970‘s began to be accused of dominating research with a positivist quantitatively oriented paradigm that prevented other paradigms of a humanistic or dialectical nature being employed, the accusations were directed at those with a behavioural science background. During twentieth century two main paradigms were employed in researching educational problems. The one is modeled on the natural sciences with an emphasis on empirical quantifiable observations which lend themselves to analyses by means of mathematical tools. The task of research is to establish causal relationships, to explain. The other paradigm is derived from the humanities with an emphasis on holistic and qualitative information and interpretive approaches. The two paradigms in educational research developed historically as follows. By the mid-nineteenth century, when August come \91798-1857) developed positivism in sociology and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) empiricism in psychology. They came to serve as models and their prevailing paradigm was taken over by social scientists, particularly in the Anglo Saxon countries. In European Continent there was another from German idealism and Hegelianism. The ―Galilean‖ mechanistic conception became the dominant one particularly with mathematical physics as the methodological ideal. There are three strands for the other main paradigm in educational research. According to the first strand, Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) maintained that the humanities had their own logic of research and pointed out that the difference between natural sciences and humanities was that the former tried to explain, whereas the latter tried to understand the unique individual in his or her entire, concrete setting.
The second strand was represented by the phenomenological philosophy developed by Edmund Husserl in Germany. It emphasized the importance of taking a widened perspective and of trying to ―get to the roots‖ of human activity. The third strand in he
humanistic paradigm consists of the critical philosophy, which developed with certain amount of neo-Marxism. The paradigm determines how a problem is formulated and methodologically handled. According to the traditional positivist conception, problems related to, for example, to classroom behviour should be investigated primarily in terms of the individual actor, either the pupils, who might be neurotic, or the teacher who might be ill prepared for this her job. The other conception is to formulate the problem in terms of the larger setting, that of the school, or rather that of the society at large. By means of such mechanisms as testing, observation and the like, one does not try to find out why the pupil or the teacher deviates from the normal. Rather an attempt is made to study the particular individual as a goal directed human being with particular and unique motives. Interdependence of the Paradigms : One can distinguish between two main paradigms in educational research planning and with different basis of knowledge. On one hand there is functional- structural, objective – rational, goal-directed, manipulative, hierarchical, and technocratic approach. On the other hand, there is the interpretivist, humanistic, consensual, subjective, and collegial one. The first approach is derived from classical positivism. The second one, more popular now, partly derived from the critical theory of the Frankfurt school, particularly from Habermas‘s theory of communicative action. The first approach is ―linear‖ and consists of a straight forward rational action toward preconceived problem. The second approach leaves room for reinterpretation and reshaping of the problem during the process of dialogue prior to action and even during action. Keeves (1988) argues that the various research paradigms employed in education, the empirical-positivist, the hermeneutic or phenomenological, and the ethnographic-anthropological are complementary to each other. He talks about the ―unity of educational research,‖ makes a distinction between paradigms and approaches, and contends that there is, in the final analysis, only one paradigm but many approaches. 19
For example, the teaching-learning process can be observed and /or video recorded. The observations can be quantified and the data analyzed by means of advanced statistical method. Content can be studied in the light of national traditions, and the philosophy underlying curriculum constructions. Both the teaching-learning process and its outcomes can be studied in a comparative, cross-national perspective. Depending upon the objective of a particular research project, emphasis is laid more on the one or on the error paradigm. Thus qualitative and quantitative paradigms are more often than not complementing each other. For example, it is not possible to arrive at any valid information about a school or national system concerning the level of competence achieved in, for instance, science by visiting a number of classrooms and thereby trying to collect impressions. Sample surveys like one collected by IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) would be an important tool. But such surveys are not much useful if it comes to accounting for factors behind the differences between school systems. Here the qualitative information of different kinds is required. Policymakers, planners, and administrators want generalizations and rules which apply to a wide variety of institutions with children of rather diverse backgrounds. The policymaker and planner is more interested in collectivity than in the individual child. They operate from the perspective of the whole system. Whereas, the classroom practitioners are not very much helped by generalizations which apply ―on the whole‖ or ―by and large‖ because they are concerned with the timely, the particular child here and now. Need for contemporary approaches : The behavioural sciences have equipped educational researchers with a store of research tools, such as observational methods and tests, which helps them to systematize observation which would otherwise would not have been considered in the more holistic and intuitive attempts to make, for instance, informal observations or to conduct personal interviews.
Those who turn to social science research in order to find the ―best‖ pedagogy or the most ―efficient‖ methods of teaching are in a way victims of traditional science which claimed to be able to arrive at generalizations applicable in practically every context. But, through critical philosophy researchers have become increasingly aware that education does not take place in a social vacuum. Educational researchers have also begun to realize that educational practices are not independent of the cultural and social context in which they operate. Nor they are neutral to educational policies. Thus the two main paradigms are not exclusive, but complementary to each other.
LET US SUM UP : Fundamental Research is a basic research which is for the sake of knowledge. Applied research to solve an immediate practical problem. Action research seeks effective way to solve a problem of the concerned area without using a particular methodology / paradigm. Paradigm of research is way to select, define and solve the problem methodically. 1.7 TYPES OF RESEARCH : 1.7.a FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH : It is basic approach which is for the sake of knowledge. Fundamental research is usually carried on in a laboratory or other sterile environment, sometimes with animals. This type of research, which has no immediate or planned application, may later result in further research of an applied nature. Basic researches involve the development of theory. It is not concerned with practical applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research. It is concerned establishing generally principles of learning. For example, much basic research has been conducted with animals to determine principles of reinforcement and their effect on learning. Like the experiment of skinner on cats gave the principle of conditioning and reinforcement. According to Travers, basic research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. Basic research is primarily concerned with the formulation of the theory or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. Its major aim is to obtain and use the empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. This type of research draws its pattern and spirit from the physical sciences. It represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis. It employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group or situations and thus develops theories by discovering proved generalizations or principles. The main aim of basic research is the discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.
Another system for classification is sometimes used for the research dealing with these who types of questions. This classification is based on goal or objective of the research. The first type of research, which has its aim obtaining the empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory is called basic research. This type of study is not oriented in design or purpose towards the solution of practical problem. Its essential aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge without regard to practical application. Of course, the findings may eventually apply to practical problems that have social value. For example, advances in the practice of medicine are dependent upon basic research in biochemistry and microbiology. Likewise, progress in educational practices has been related to progress in the discovery of general laws through psychological, educational, sociological research.
1.7.b APPLIED RESEARCH : The second type of research which aims to solve an immediate practical problem, is referred to as applied research. According to Travers, ―applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.‖
It is research performed in relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. Through applied research, educators are often able to solve their problems at
the appropriate level of complexity, that is, in the classroom teaching learning situations. We may depend upon basic research for the discovery of more general laws of learning, but applied research much is conducted in the order to determine how these laws operate in the classroom. This approach is essential if scientific changes in teaching practice are to be effected. Unless educators undertake to solve their own practical problems of this type no one else will. It should be pointed out that applied research also uses the scientific method of enquiry. We find that there is not always a sharp line of demarcation between basic and applied research. Certainly applications are made from theory to help in the solution of practical problems. We attempt to apply the theories of learning in the classroom. On the other hand, basic research may depend upon the findings of the applied research to complete its theoretical formulations. A classroom learning experiment can throw some light on the learning theory. Furthermore, observations in the practical situations serve to test theories and may lead to the formulation of new theories. Most educational research studies are classified at the applied end of the continuum; they are more concerned with ―what‖ works best than with ―why‖. For example, applied research tests the principle of reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in improving learning (e.g. programmed instruction) and behaviour (e.g. behaviour modification). Applied research has most of the characteristics of fundamental research, including the use of sampling techniques and the subsequent inferences about the target population. Its purpose, however, is improving a product or a process – testing theoretical concepts in actual problem situations. Most educational research is applied research, for it attempts to develop generalizations about teaching – learning processes and instructional materials.
The applied research may also be employed a university or research institute or may be found in private industry or working for a government agency. In the field of education such a person might be employed by a curriculum publishing company, a state department of education, or a college of education at a university. Applied researches are also found in the settings in which the application or practitioner‘s role is primary. This is where the
teachers, clinical psychologists, school psychologists, social workers physicians, civil engineers, managers, advertising specialists and so on are found. Many of theses people receive training in doing research, and they use this knowledge for two purpose. (1) To help practitioners understand, evaluate, and use the research produced by basic and applied researches in their own fields and, (2) To develop a systematic way of addressing the practical problems and questions that arise as they practice their professions. For example, a teacher who notices that a segment of the class is not adequately motivated in science might look at the research literature on teaching science and then systematically try some of the findings suggested by the research. Some of the recent focus of applied educational research have been grading practices, collective bargaining for school personnel, curriculum content, instructional procedures, educational technology, and assessment of achievement. The topics have been investigated with an applied research because the questions raised in these areas generally have limited or no concrete knowledge of theory we can draw upon directly to aid in decision making.
1.7.c ACTION RESEARCH :
Research designed to uncover effective ways of dealing with problems in the real world can be referred to as action research. 25
This kind of research is not confined to a particular methodology or paradigm. For example, a study of the effectiveness of training teenage parents to care for their infants. The study is based on statistical and other evidence that infants of teenage mothers seemed to be exposed to more risks than other infants. The mother and children were recruited for participation in the study while the children were still in neonate period. Mothers were trained at home or in an infant nursery. A controlled group received no training. The mothers trained at home were visited at 2-weeks interval over a 12-month period. Those trained in nursery setting attended 3-days per week for 6 months, were paid minimum wage, and assisted as staff in centre. Results of the study suggested that the children of both group of trained mothers benefited more in terms of their health and cognitive measures than did the controlled children. Generally greater benefits were realized by the children of the mothers trained in the nursery that with the mothers trained at home. Thus the study shows that such researches have direct application to real world problems. Second, elements of both quantitative and qualitative approaches can be found in the study. For example, quantitative measure of weight, height, and cognitive skills were obtained in this study. However, at the start itself from the personal impressions and observations without the benefit of systematic quantitative data, the researches was able to say that the mother in the nursery centre showed some unexpected vocational aspirations to become nurses. Third, treatments and methods that are investigated are flexible and might change during the study in response to the results as they are obtained. Thus, action research is more systematic and empirical than some other approaches to innovation and change, but it does not lead to careful controlled scientific experiments that are generalizable to a wide variety of situations and settings.
The purpose of action research is to solve classroom problems through the application of scientific methods. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a local setting. It is not concerned with whether the results are generalizable to any other setting and is not characterized by the same kind of control evidence in other categories of research. The primary goal of action research is the solution of a given problem, not contribution to science. Whether
the research is conducted in one classroom or many classrooms, the teacher is very much a part of the process. The more research trainings the teacher involved have had, the more likely it is that the research will produce valid, if not generalizable research. The value of action research is confined primarily to those who are conducting it. Despite its shortcomings, it does represents a scientific approach to the problem solving that is considerably better than changed based on the alleged effectiveness of untried procedures, and infinitely better than no changes at all. It is a means by which concerned school personnel can attempt to improve the educational process, at least within their environment. Of course, the true value of action research to true scientific progress is limited. True progress requires the development of sound theories having implications for many classrooms, not just one or two. One sound theory that includes ten principles of learning may eliminate the need of hundreds of would – be action research studies. Given the current status of educational theory, however, action research provides immediate answers to problem that can not wait for theoretical solutions. As John Best puts it, action research is focused on immediate applications. Its purposes is to improve school practices and at the same time, to improve those who try to improve the practices, to combine the research processes, habits of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others, and professional spirit. If most classroom teachers are to be involved in research activity, it will probably be in the area of action research. Many observers have projected action research nothing more than the application of common sense or good management. Whether or not it is worthy of the term research it does not apply scientific thinking and methods to real life problems and represents a greater improvement over teachers‘ subjective judgments and decision based upon stereotype thinking and limited personal experience.
The concept of action research under the leadership of Corey has been instrumental in bringing educational research nearer to educational practitioners. Action research is research undertaken by practitioners in order that they may attempt to solve their local, practical problems by using the method of science.
2 RESEARCH DESIGN Unit Structure: 2.0 Objectives 2.1 (A) Meaning, definition, purpose and components of research design. 2.2 (B) Difference between the terms research method and research methodology. 2.3 (C) Research proposal: Its meaning and need
A. Identification of research topic: sources and need
B. Review of related Literature
C. Rationale and need for the study
D. Definition of Terms
E. Variables
F. Research questions, objectives and hypotheses
G. Assumptions if any
H. Scope, limitations and delimitations
I. Method, sample and tools
J. Significance of study
K. Technique for data analysis
L. Bibliography
M. Time frame
N. Budget
O. Chapterisation
2.0 OBJECTIVES : On completion of this unit, you will be able to : 1) State meaning of research design 2) Describe purpose of research design 3) Distinguish between research method and research methodology. 4) Discuss purposes of research proposal 5) List down various components of research proposal 6) Prepare write up for research proposal for a given topic. 2.1 (A) MEANING, DEFINITION, PURPOSE AND COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN Meaning of Research Design : Before starting a research, the investigator will look for problem, he will read books, journals, research reports and other related literature. Based on this, he will finalise the topic for research. During this process, he will be in close contact with his guide. As soon as the topic is decided, first task is to decide about design. Research design is a blue print or structure with in which research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. According to Gay and Airasian (2000), ―A design is general strategy for conducting a research study. The nature of the hypothesis, the variables involved, and the constraints of the ―real world‖ all contribute to the selection of design.‖ Kothari (1988) says, ―Decisions regarding WHAT?, WHERE?, WHEN?, HOW MUCH?, by WHAT? means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute research design. 30
Thus, it can be said that research design is an outline of what the researcher will do from writing of objectives, hypotheses and its operational implications to find analysis of data. Research design should be able to convey following :
What is the study about?
Where will study be carried out?
What type of data is necessary?
Where necessary data is available?
How much time is needed to complete the study?
What will be the sampling design?
Which tools will be identified to collect data?
How data will be analysed?
Depending upon the types of research the structure of design may vary. Suppose, one is conducting an experimental research, then identification of variables, control of variables, types of experimental design etc. be discussed properly. If someone is conducting qualitative research, then one should stress on understanding of setting, nature of data, holistic approach, selection of participants, inductive data analysis. Thus, according to nature and type of study the components of design will be decided. In short, any efficient research design will help the researcher to carry out the study in a systematic way. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DESIGN :
A research design helps the investigator to obtain answers to research problem and issues involved in the research, since it is the outline of entire research process.
Design also tells us about how to collect data, what observation are to be carry out, how to make them, how to analyse the data.
Design also guides investigator about statistical techniques to be used for analysis.
Design also guides to control certain variables in experimental research.
Thus, design guides the investigator to carry out research step by step in an efficient way. The design section is said to be complete / adequate if investigator could carry out his research by following the steps described in design. 2.2 (B) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TERMS RESEARCH METHOD AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY : While preparing the design of the study, it is necessary to think of research method. It is simply the method for conducting research. Generally, such methods are divided into quantitative and qualitative methods. Such quantitative methods include descriptive research, evaluation research and assessment research. Assessment type of studies include surveys, public opinion polls, assessment of educational achievement. Evaluation studies include school surveys, follow up studies. Descriptive research studies are concerned with analysis of the relationships between non manipulated variables. Apart from these quantitative methods, educational research also includes experimental and quasi experimented research, survey research and causal-comparative research. Qualitative research methods include ethnography, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, narrative research, grounded theory, symbolic interaction and case study. Thus, the researcher should mention about methods of research used in his research with proper justification for its use. 32
The term ‗methodology‘ seems to be broader, in the sense it includes nature of population, selection of sample, selection / preparation of tools, collection of data and how data will be analysed. Here the method of research is also included. 2.3 (C) RESEARCH PROPOSAL : ITS MEANING AND NEED : Preparing the research proposal is an important step because at this stage, entire research project gets a concrete shape. Researcher‘s insight and inspiration are translated into a step by step plan for discovering new knowledge. Proposal is more than research design. Research design is a subset of proposal. Ordinarily research design will not talk much about heoretical frame work of the study. It will be also silent about the review of related studies. A strong rationale for conducting research is also not part of research design. At the stage of writing proposal, the entire research work shapes into concrete form. In the proposal, the researcher demonstrates that he is familiar with what he is doing. Following are a few purposes of a research proposal :
The proposal is like the blue print which the architect designs before construction of a house. It conveys the plan of entire research work along with justification of conducting the same.
The proposal is to be presented to funding agency or a departmental research committee. Now presentation of research proposal is compulsory before the committee as per U.G.C. guidelines of July 2009. In such a committee, a number of experts participate and suggest important points to help and guide researcher. In fact, this is a very constructive activity. In C.A.S.E., a research proposal is presented on three occasions. First, in the researcher‘s forum on Saturday, second in Tuesday seminar and finally before the committee consisting of Dean,
Head, Guide and other experts. Such fruitful discussion helps in resolving many issues. When such presentation is there, it always brings seriousness on the part of researcher and guide also. During such presentation, strengths and limitations of proposal will be come out. Funding agency also provides funds based on strength and quality of proposal.
Research proposal serves as a plan of action. It conveys researcher and others as to how study will be conducted. There is indication of time schedule and budget estimates in the proposal which guides researcher to complete the task in time with in sanctioned budget.
The proposal approved by committee serves as a bond of agreement between researcher and guide. Entire proposal becomes a mirror for both to execute the study further.
Thus, a research proposal serves mainly following purposes. (i) It communicates researcher‘s plan to all others interested. (ii) It serves as a plan of action. (iii) It is an agreement between researcher and the guide. (iv) Its presentation before experts provide further rethinking on the entire work. Following components are generally included in the research proposal. It is not necessary to follow this list rigidly. It should provide useful outline for writing of any research proposal. Normally, a research proposal begins with an Introduction, this gives clearly the background or history of the problem selected. Some also calls this as a theoretical / conceptual framework. This will include various theories / concepts related to problem selected. Theoretical frame work should have logical sequence. Suppose researcher wants to study the achievement of class IX students in mathematics in particular area, then conceptual frame may include:
Objectives of teaching mathematics, its purpose of secondary school level
Importance of achievement in mathematics
Level of achievement as studied by other researchers
Factors affecting achievements of mathematics
Various commissions and committees views on achievement in mathematics.
All these points can be put into sequence logically. Whenever needed theoretical support be given. This is an important step in research proposal. Generally any proposal begins with this type of introduction. A. Identification of Research Topic : Sources and Need : As discussed earlier, researcher will spell out as to how the problem emerged, its social and educational context and its importance to the field. Some researchers name this caption as background of the study or Theoretical / Conceptual frame work of the study. In short, here the entire topic of the research is briefly introduced along with related concepts and theories in the field. B. Review of Related Literature : In this section, one presents what is so far known about the problem under investigation. Generally theoretical / conceptual frame work is already reported in earlier section. In this section researcher concentrates on studies conducted in the area of interest. here, a researcher will locate various studies conducted in his area and interest. Try to justify that all such located studies are ‗related ‗to your work. For locating such studies one will refer following documents / sources.
Surveys of research in education (Edited earlier by Prof. M. B. Buch and Later on by NCERT, New Delhi)
Ph. D. Theses available in various libraries.
Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE)
Dissertation Abstract International (DAI)
Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) by U.S. office of education.
Various national / International journals, Internet resources (For detail see Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., and Razavih A. (1972). Introduction to Research in Education N. Y. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ING pp 55 – 70)
In research proposal, the review of studies conducted earlier is reported briefly. There are two was of reporting the same. One way could be all such related studies be reported chronologically in brief indicating purpose, sample, tools and major findings. Of course, this will increase the volume of research proposal. Second studies with similar trends be put together and its important trend/s be highlighted. This is bit difficult, but innovative. Normally in review the surname of author and year in bracket is mentioned. There is also a trend to report studies conducted in other countries separately. It is left to guide and researcher whether such separate caption is necessary or not. At the end of review, in research proposal, there should be conclusion. (Of course a separate caption like conclusion be avoided.) Here, the researcher shares the insights he has gained from the review. Also, on the basis of review he will justice the need of conducting present study. The researcher should conclude with following points :
What has been done so far in this area?
Where? (Area wise)
When? (Year wise)
How? (Methodology wise)
What needs to be done?
Thus, the researcher will identify the ‗Research Gap‘. C. Rationale and Need of the Study : Rationale should answer the question – ‗why‘ this study is conducted? It ‗why‘ is answered properly, then rationale a strong one. For strong rationale, the earlier section of review will be of much help. Identified research gaps will convey as to why this study is conducted. Suppose the investigator wants to study the following problem : ‗Development and Try out of CAI in Teaching of Science for Class VIII in Mumbai‖. Here, the researcher should try to answer why CAI only? Why it is in Science teaching only? Why it is for class VIII only? Why it is in Mumbai only? If these questions are answered adequately, then rationale becomes strong. Here one has to identify gaps in the area of Science teaching especially with reference to CAI. Apart from this, the need for conducting the present study be justified. D. Definition of Terms : Every research study involves certain key or technical terms which have some special connotation in the context of study; hence it is always desirable to define such key words. There are two types definitions, (i) Theoretical / constitutive and (ii) Operational.
A constitutive definition elucidates a term and perhaps gives some more insight into the phenomena described by the terms. Thus, this definition is based on some theory. While an operational
definition is one which ascribes meaning to a concept by specifying the operations that must be performed in order to measure the concept, e.g. the word ‗achievement‘ has many meanings but operationally it can be defined as, ―the scores obtained by the students in English test constructed by researcher in 2009. Here it is clear that achievement in English will be measured by administering to test constructed by Mr. So and So in 2009. Apart from operational definitions, one can define some terms which have definite meaning with reference to particular investigation. The terms like Lok Jumbish, Minimum Levels of Learning, Programmed Learning etc. can be define in particular context of research. E. Variables : Variables involved in the research need to be identified here. Their operational definitions should be given in the research proposal. Especially in study where experimental research is conducted, variables be specified with enough care. Their classification should be done in terms and dependent variables, independent variables, intervening variables, extraneous variables etc. Controlling of some variables need to be discussed at an appropriate stage in proposal. F. Research questions objectives and hypotheses: While reading the statement of the problem, there may be bit confusion to avoid such confusions there is a need to have specification of a research problem. This specification can be done by writing research questions, objectives, hypotheses, by writing operational definitions thus, objectives give more clarity to researchers and reactors objectives are the foundations of the research, as they will guide the entire process of research. List of objectives should not be too lengthy not ambiguous. The objectives we stated clearly to indicate what the researcher is trying to investigate.
While conducting any research, researcher would definitely aim at assuring certain questions. The researcher should frame such questions in a praise way. Some researchers simply put the objectives in the question form, which is just duplication of objectives, which be avoided. Depending on the nature of study, the researcher would formulate hypotheses, The proposition of a hypothesis is derived from theoretical constructs, previous researches on earlier researches, the researcher can write research or will hypothesis will be more suitable however as per evidences from previous researches one can decide the nature of hypothesis. Formulation of hypothesis is an indication that researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area and it also gives direction for data collection and analysis. A hypothesis has to be : (I) testable, (ii) have explanatory power, (iii) state expected relationship between variables. (iv) consistent with existing body of knowledge. G. Assumptions: Best and Kahn (2004) assumptions are statements of what the researcher believes to be facts but cannot verify. If the researcher is proceeding with certain assumptions, then same need to be reported in the research proposal. H. Scope, Limitations and Delimitations: 39
In any research, it is not possible to cover all aspects of the area of interest, variables, population and so on. Thus, a study has always certain limitations. Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may play restriction on conclusions. Sometimes, the tool used is not revalidated. This itself becomes limitation of the study. Thus limitation is a broad term, but delimitation is a narrow term. It indicates boundaries of the study. The study on achievement in English can be delimited to only grant-in-aid school, which includes schools who follow Maharashtra State Board, so here beyond this conclusion can not be extended. This can be made more specific by specifying the population and sample. I. Method, Sample and Tools: Method: A researcher should report about method of research. As discussed in (b), researcher should mention as to how study will be conducted. Depending on nature of study – qualitative or quantitative the method of research need to be reported along with justification. i.e. how particular method suits one‘s study be discussed in brief. If it is survey, do not write simply survey, but indicate further the type of survey too. If it is experimental design, mention specifically which type of experimental design. Sample : You might have already studied about sampling in details. This section of research proposal will mention about selection of sample. First, the researcher should mention about would like to in for. One must describe the population along with total size. This is especially needed in case of randomization and stratification. Researcher should mention about probability non probability sampling design. Accordingly selection of sample need to be detailed out along with its justification. Many researchers write about randomization without mentioning size of population. the researcher also writes about stratified sampling without details of various strata along with its size. As from the sample statistics, population parameter is to be estimated, solution of sample be done with enough care.
In case of qualitative research, investigator may go for theoretical sampling. It is necessary to derailed out have , it need be, description of field is necessary. Tools : You have already shared about various tools of data collection. In this section of proposal selection and description of tool is for be reported with proper justification. Steps of construction of particular tool need to be reported in brief. If readymade tools are used then its related details need to be reported. Details like author of the tool, its reliability, validity, and norms, along with scoring procedure need to be reported. It has been found that many researchers fail to report the year when tool was constructed. As far as possible, very old tools need to be avoided. In case of readymade tools, always look for which population it was desirable to use valid and reliable tools. J. Significance of the Study : If we have already reported strong rationale then, hardly there is any need to go for significance. In rationale part, one must describe as to how this study will contribute to the field of education. How the findings / results of particular research will influence educational process in general need to be reported in the rationale only. (Note : There are various models for writing research proposal. It differs from university to university. Many funding agencies have their own format for proposal.) K. Technique/s of Data Analysis :
This is crucial step in proposal. As to how collected data will be tabulated and organized for the purpose of further analysis is to
be reported in this section. If it is a quantitative research, parametric or non-parametric statistical techniques will be used need to be reported. Before applying any technique for data analysis, verify the needed assumptions about that particular technique. Suppose if one wants to go for ANOVA, verify about assumption for normality, nature of data – especially in interval or ratio scale, homogeneity of variances and randomization. If it is qualitative analysis, detailed out about nature of data, its tabulation, orgnaisation and description. If data are to be analysed with the help of content analysis, how exactly it will be done needs to be detailed out. Whichever technique one is using, it needs to be in tune with objectives and hypotheses of study. L. Bibliography : During preparation of proposal, researcher consults various sources like books, journals, reports, Ph.D. theses etc. All such primary / secondary sources need to be reported in the bibliography. Generally American Psychological Association – Publication Manual be followed to write references. All authors quoted in proposal need to be listed in bibliography. Authors who are not quoted but they are useful for further reading be also listed. Consistency and uniformity be observed in reporting references. M. Time Frame : The proposal submitted for M.Phil or Ph.D. degrees, generally do not require time frame in all universities, but there is a fixed limit for these courses. It is always advisable to give detailed schedule if research work, as it helps to keep researcher alert. Proposals to be submitted to funding agency definitely ask for time frame. Time frame need to be reported keeping following points in view. Time / duration mentioned by funding agency be properly dividend.
Time required for preliminary work like review of literature.
Time required for preparing tool/s.
Time require for data collection, field visits etc.
Time required for data analysis and report writing.
N. Budget : The proposal submitted to the funding agency needs details regarding financial estimates. It may include expected expenditure keeping various budget needs. Following budget needs be kept in view along with amount.
Remuneration for project team, i.e. principal investigator and project team.
Remuneration for secretarial staff like clerk, data entry operator, accountants, helpers etc.
Remuneration for appointing project fellow, field investigators etc.
Expenditure towards purchase of books, journals, tools etc.
Expenditure towards printing, xeroxing, stationery etc.
Expenditure for data entry, tabulation and analysis of data.
Expenditure for field work, travel for monitoring purpose etc.
Expenditure for preparing final report.
While preparing budget, examine the guidelines given by particular funding agency. O. Chapterisation :
Generally scheme of chapterisation is given in synopsis. If at all it is to be reported in research proposal write down various
caption, sub captions in each chapter, format for thesis is given by few universities, same be followed.
3 VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of variables
3.3 Types of variables (independent, dependent, Extraneous, Intervening and Moderator)
3.4 Concept of hypothesis
3.5 Sources of hypothesis
3.6 Types of hypothesis (Research, Directional, Non Directional, Null, Statistical and question form
3.7 Formulating hypothesis
3.8 Characteristics of a good hypothesis
3.9 Hypothesis testing and theory
3.10 Errors in testing of hypothesis
3.11 Summary
3.0 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Define variables
Identify the different types of variables
Show the relationship between the variables
Explain the concept of hypotheses
State the sources of hypotheses
Explain different types of hypothesis
Identify types of hypothesis
Frame hypotheses skillfully
Describe the characteristics of a good hypothesis
Explain the significance level in hypothesis testing
Identify the errors in testing of hypothesis
3.1 INTRODUCTION: Each person/thing we collect data on is called an observation (in our research work these are usually people/subjects). Observation (participants) possess a variety of characteristics. If a characteristic of an observation (participant) is the same for every member of the group i.e. it does not vary, it is called a constant. If a characteristic of an observation (participant) differs for group members it is called a variable. In research we do not get excited about constants (since everyone is the same on that characteristic); we are more interested in variables. 3.2 MEANING OF VARIABLES A variable is any entity that can take on different values. So what does that mean? Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person's country can be assigned a value. A variable is a concept or abstract idea that can be described in measurable terms. In research, this term refers to the measurable characteristics, qualities, traits, or attributes of a particular individual, object, or situation being studied. Variables are properties or characteristics of some event, object, or person that can take on different values or amounts.
Variables are things that we measure, control, or manipulate in research. They differ in many respects, most notably in the role they are given in our research and in the type of measures that can be applied to them. By itself, the statement of the problem usually provides only general direction for the research study; it does not include all the specific information. There is some basic terminology that is extremely important in how we communicate specific information about research problems and about research in general. Let us analyse an example; if a researcher is interested in the effects of two different teaching methods on the science achievement of fifth-grade students, the grade level is constant, because all individuals involved are fifth-graders. This characteristic is the same for everyone; it is a ‘constant’ condition of the study. After the different teaching methods have been implemented, the fifth-graders involved would be measured with a science achievement test. It is very unlikely that all of the fifth-graders would receive the same score on this test, hence the score on the science achievement test becomes a variable, because different individuals will have different scores; at least, not all individuals will have the same scores. We would say that science achievement is a variable, but we would mean, specifically, that the score on the science achievement test is a variable. There is another variable in the preceding example – the teaching method. In contrast to the science achievement test score, which undoubtedly would be measured on a scale with many possible values, teaching method is a categorical variable consisting of only two categories, the two methods. Thus, we have different kinds of variables and different names or classifications for them.
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attributes(s). Age is an example of
continuous variable, but the number of male and female respondents is an example of discrete variable.
3.3 TYPES OF VARIABLES:
There are many classification systems given in the literature the names we use are descriptive; they describe the roles that variables play in a research study. The variables described below by no means exhaust the different systems and names that exist, but they are the most useful for communicating about educational research.
3.3.1 Independent variables:
Independent variables are variables which are manipulated or controlled or changed. In the example "a study of the effect of teacher praise on the reading achievement of second-graders", the effect of praise, the researcher is trying to determine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship, so the kind of praise is varied to see whether it produces different scores on the reading achievement test. We call this a manipulated independent variable (treatment variable). The amount and kind of praise is manipulated by the researcher. The researcher could analyze the scores for boys and girls separately to see whether the results are the same for both genders. In this case gender is a classifying or attributes independent variable. The researcher cannot manipulate gender, but can classify the children according to gender.
3.3.2 Dependent variables:
Dependent variables are the outcome variables and are the variables for which we calculate statistics. The variable which changes on account of independent variable is known as dependent variable.
Let us take the example, a study of the effect of teacher praise on the reading achievement of second-graders; the dependent variable is reading achievement. We might compare the average reading achievement scores of second-graders in different praise conditions such as no praise, oral praise, written praise, and combined oral and written praise. The following example further illustrates the use of variables and constants. In a study conducted to determine the effect of three different teaching methods on achievement in elementary algebra, each of three ninth-grade algebra sections in the same school, taught by the same teacher, is taught using one of the methods. Both boys and girls are included in the study. The constants in the study are grade level, school, and teacher. (This assumes that, except for method, the teacher can hold teaching effectiveness constant.) The independent variables in the study are teaching method and gender of the student. Teaching method has three levels that arbitrarily can be designated methods A, B, and C; gender of the student, of course, has two levels. Achievement in algebra, as measured at the end of the instructional period, is the dependent variable. The terms dependent and independent variable apply mostly to experimental research where some variables are manipulated, and in this sense they are "independent" from the initial reaction patterns, features, intentions, etc. of the subjects. Some other variables are expected to be "dependent" on the manipulation or experimental conditions. That is to say, they depend on "what the subject will do" in response. Somewhat contrary to the nature of this distinction, these terms are also used in studies where we do not literally manipulate independent variables, but only assign subjects to "experimental groups" based on some pre-existing properties of the subjects. . Independent variables are those that are manipulated whereas dependent variables are only measured or registerd. Consider other examples of independent and dependent variables:
Example 1: A study of teacher-student classroom interaction at different levels of schooling. Independent variable: Level of schooling, four categories – primary, upper primary, secondary and junior college. Dependent variable: Score on a classroom observation inventory, which measures teacher – student interaction Example 2: A comparative study of the professional attitudes of secondary school teachers by gender. Independent variable: Gender of the teacher – male, female. Dependent variable: Score on a professional attitude inventory.
3.3.3 Extraneous variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.
E.g. Effectiveness of different methods of teaching Social Science. Here variables such as teacher’s competence, Teacher’s enthusiasm, age, socio economic status also contribute substantially to the teaching learning process. It cannot be controlled by the researcher. The conclusions lack incredibility because of extraneous variables.
3.3.4 Intervening variables:
They intervene between cause and effect. It is difficult to observe, as they are related with individuals feelings such as boredom, fatigue excitement At times some of these variables cannot be controlled or measured but have an important effect upon the result of the study as it intervenes between cause and effect. Though difficult, it has to be controlled through appropriate design. Eg. "Effect of immediate reinforcement on learning the parts of speech". Factors other than reinforcement such as anxiety, fatigue, and motivation may be intervening variables. They are difficult to define in operational, observable terms however they cannot be ignored and must be controlled using appropriate research design.
3.3.5 Moderator:
A third variable that when introduced into an analysis alters or has a contingent effect on the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable. A moderator variable is an independent variable that is not of primary interest that has levels, which when combined with the levels of the independent variable of interest produces different effects.
For example, suppose that the researcher designs a study to determine the impact of the lengths of reading passages on the comprehension of the reading passage. The design has three levels of passage length: 100 words, 200 words, and 300 words. The participants in the study are fourth-fifth- and sixth-graders. Suppose that the three grade levels all did very well on the 100-word passage, but only the sixth-graders did very well on the 300-word passage. This would mean that successfully comprehending reading passages of different lengths was moderated by grade level.
3.4 CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. The derivation of a suitable hypothesis goes hand in hand with the selection of a research problem. A hypothesis, as a tentative hunch, explains the situation under observation so as to design the study to prove or disprove it. What a researcher is looking for is a working or positive hypothesis. It is very difficult, laborious and time consuming to make adequate discriminations in the complex interplay of facts without hypothesis. It gives definite point and direction to the study, prevents blind search and indiscriminate gathering of data and helps to delimit the field of inquiry.
3.4.1 Meaning:
The word hypothesis (plural is hypotheses) is derived from the Greek word – ‘hypotithenai’ meaning ‘to put under’ or ‘to suppose’ for a hypothesis to be put forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Etymologically hypothesis is made up of two words, "hypo" (less than) and "thesis", which mean less than or less certain than a thesis. It is the presumptive statement of a proposition or a reasonable guess, based upon the available evidence, which the researcher seeks to prove through his study. According to Lundberg, ― hypothesis is a tentative generalisation, the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation. Goode and Hatt have defined it as ―a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity‖ A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search of new truth. A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a guide in the investigation of other facts and theories that are yet unknown.
It is a guess, supposition or tentative inference as to the existence of some fact, condition or relationship relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain such facts as already are known to exist in a given area of research and to guide the search for new truth. Hypotheses reflect the research worker’s guess as to the probable outcome of the experiments. A hypothesis is therefore a shrewd and intelligent guess, a supposition, inference, hunch, provisional statement or tentative generalization as to the existence of some fact, condition or relationship relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain already known facts in a given area of research and to guide the search for new truth on the basis of empirical evidence. The hypothesis is put to test for its tenability and for determining its validity. In this connection Lundberg observes: Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the following ones: "Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling" or "There is a positive relationship between academic aptitude scores and scores on a social adjustment inventory for high school students" These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.
3.4.2 Importance of the Hypotheses:
The importance of hypotheses is generally recognized more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. In experimental research, the researchers is interested in making predictions about the outcome of the experiment or what the results are expected to show and therefore the role of hypotheses is considered to be of utmost importance. In the historical or descriptive research, on the other hand, the researcher is investigating the history of a city or a nation, the life of a man, the happening of an event, or is seeking facts to determine the status quo of some situation and thus may not have a basis for making a prediction of results. A hypothesis, therefore, may not be required in such fact-finding studies. Hillway (1964) too is of the view that "when fact-finding alone is the aim of the study, a hypothesis may not be required." Most historical or descriptive studies, however, involve not only fact-finding but interpretation of facts to draw generalizations. If a researcher is tracing the history of an educational institution or making a study about the results of a coming assembly poll, the facts or data he gathers will prove useful only if he is able to draw generalizations from them. Whenever possible, a hypothesis is recommended for all major studies to explain observed facts, conditions or behaviour and to serve as a guide in the research process. The importance of hypotheses may be summarized as under.
1. Hypotheses facilitate the extension of knowledge in an area. They provide tentative explanations of facts and phenomena, and can be tested and validated. It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of situations which are relevant from the standpoint of the problem in hand.
2. Hypotheses provide the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements expressed in a logical order of relationships which seek to describe or to explain conditions or events, that have not yet been confirmed by facts. The hypotheses enable the researcher to relate logically known facts to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions. It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery. It
is the investigator’s eye – a sort of guiding light in the work of darkness.
3. Hypotheses provide direction to the research. It defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant. The hypotheses tell the researcher specifically what he needs to do and find out in his study. Thus it prevents the review of irrelevant literature and the collection of useless or excess data. Hypotheses provide a basis for selecting the sample and the research procedures to be used in the study. The statistical techniques needed in the analysis of data, and the relationships between the variables to be tested, are also implied by the hypotheses. Furthermore, the hypotheses help the researcher to delimit his study in scope so that it does not become broad or unwieldy.
4. Hypotheses provide the basis for reporting the conclusions of the study. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions. The researcher will find it very convenient to test each hypothesis separately and state the conclusions that are relevant to each. On the basis of these conclusions, he can make the research report interesting and meaningful to the reader. It provides the outline for setting conclusions in a meaningful way.
Hypothesis has a very important place in research although it occupies a very small pace in the body of a thesis. It is almost impossible for a research worker not to have one or more hypotheses before proceeding with his work. 3.5 SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS:
The derivation of a good hypothesis demands characteristic of experience and creativity. Though hypothesis should precede the gathering of data, a good hypothesis can come only from experience. Some degree of data gathering, the review of related literature, or a pilot study must precede the development and gradual refinement of the hypothesis. A good investigator must 56
have not only an alert mind capable of deriving relevant hypothesis, but also a critical mind capable of rejecting faulty hypothesis. What is the source of hypotheses? They may be derived directly from the statement of the problem; they may be based on the research literature, or in some cases, such as in ethnographic research, they may (at least in part) be generated from data collection and analysis. The various sources of hypotheses may be:
Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems;
Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution.
Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
Intuition is often considered a reasonable source of research hypotheses -- especially when it is the intuition of a well-known researcher or theoretician who "knows what is known"
Rational Induction is often used to form "new hypotheses" by logically combining the empirical findings from separate areas of research
Prior empirical research findings are perhaps the most common source of new research hypotheses, especially when carefully combined using rational induction
Thus hypothesis are formulated as a result of prior thinking about the subject, examination of the available data and material including related studies and the council of experts.
3.6 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS :
3.6.1 Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent 58
variable. A research hypothesis must be stated in a testable form for its proper evaluation. As already stressed, this form should indicate a relationship between the variables in clear, concise, and understandable language. Research hypotheses are classified as being directional or non-directional.
3.6.2 Directional hypothesis: The hypotheses which stipulate the direction of the expected differences or relationships are terms as directional hypotheses. For example, the research hypothesis: "There will be a positive relationship between individual’s attitude towards high caste Hindus and his socio-economic status," is a directional research hypothesis. This hypothesis stipulates that individuals with favourable attitude towards high cast Hindus will generally come from higher socio-economic Hindu families and therefore it does stipulate the direction of the relationship. Similarly, the hypothesis: "Adolescent boys with high IQ will exhibit low anxiety than adolescent boys with low IQ" is a directional research hypothesis because it stipulates the direction of the difference between groups.
3.6.3 Non-directional hypothesis: A research hypothesis which does not specify the direction of expected differences or relationships is a non-directional research hypothesis. For example, the hypotheses: "There will be difference in the adaptability of fathers and mothers towards rearing of their children" or "There is a difference in the anxiety level of adolescent girls of high IQ and low IQ" are non-directional research hypotheses. Although these hypotheses stipulate there will be a difference, the direction of the difference is not specified. A research hypothesis can take either statistical form, declarative form, the null form, or the question form.
3.6.4 Statistical hypothesis: When it is time to test whether the data support or refute the research hypothesis, it needs to be translated into a statistical hypothesis. A statistical hypothesis is given in statistical terms. Technically, in the context of inferential statistics, it is a statement about one or more parameters that are measures of the populations under study. Statistical hypotheses often are given in quantitative terms, for example: "The mean reading
achievement of the population of third-grade students taught by Method A equals the mean reading achievement of the population taught by Method B." Therefore we can say that statistical hypotheses are, concerned with populations under study. We use inferential statistics, to draw conclusions about population values even though we have access to only a sample of participants. In order to use inferential statistics, we need to translate the research hypothesis into a testable form, which is called the null hypothesis. An alternative or declarative hypothesis indicates the situation corresponding to when the null hypothesis is not true. The stated hypothesis will differ depending on whether or not it is a directional research hypothesis.
3.6.5 Declarative hypothesis: When the researcher makes a positive statement about the outcome of the study, the hypothesis takes the declarative form. For example, the hypothesis: "The academic achievement of extroverts is significantly higher than that of the introverts," is stated in the declarative form. In such a statement of hypothesis, the researcher makes a prediction based on his theoretical formulations of what should happen if the explanations of the behaviour he has given in his theory are correct.
3.6.6 Null hypothesis: In the null form, the researcher makes a statement that no relationship exists. The hypothesis, "There is no significant difference between the academic achievement of high school athletes and that of non athletes," is an example of null hypothesis. Since null hypotheses can be tested statistically, they are often termed as statistical hypotheses. They are also called the testing hypotheses when declarative hypotheses are tested statistically by converting them into null form. It states that even where it seems to hold good it is due to mere chance. It is for the researcher to reject the null hypothesis by showing that the outcome mentioned in the declarative hypothesis does occur and the quantum of it is such that it cannot be easily dismissed as having occurred by chance.
3.6.7 Question form hypothesis: In the question form hypothesis, a question is asked as to what the outcome will be instead of stating what outcome is expected. Suppose a researcher is interested in knowing whether programmed instruction has any relationship to test anxiety of children.
The declarative form of the hypothesis might be: "Teaching children through the programmed instruction material will decrease their test anxiety".
The null form would be: "teaching children through programmed instruction material will have no effect on their test anxiety.’ This statement shows that no relationship exists between programmed instruction and test anxiety.
The question form puts the statement in the form: "Will teaching children through programmed instruction decrease their test anxiety?"
3.7 FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS:
Hypotheses are guesses or tentative generalizations, but these guesses are not merely accidents. Collection of factual information alone does not lead to successful formulation of hypotheses. Hypotheses are the products of considerable speculation and imaginative guess work. They are based partly on known facts and explanations, and partly conceptual. There are no precise rules for formulating hypotheses and deducing consequences from them that can be empirically verified. However, there are certain necessary conditions that are conducive to their formulation. Some of them are:
Richness of background knowledge. A researcher may deduce hypotheses inductively after making observations of behaviour, noticing trends or probable relationships. For example, a classroom teacher daily observes student behaviour. On the basis of his experience and his knowledge of behaviour in a school situation.
the teacher may attempt to relate the behaviour of students to his own, to his teaching methods, to changes in the school environment, and so on. From these observed relationships, the teacher may inductively formulate a hypothesis that attempts to explain such relationships.
Background knowledge, however, is essential for perceiving relationships among the variables and to determine what findings other researchers have reported on the problem under study. New knowledge, new discoveries, and new inventions should always form continuity with the already existing corpus of knowledge and, therefore, it becomes all the more essential to be well versed with the already existing knowledge. Hypotheses may be formulated correctly by persons who have rich experiences and academic background, but they can never be formulated by those who have poor background knowledge.
Versatility of intellect: Hypotheses are also derived through deductive reasoning from a theory. Such hypotheses are called deductive hypotheses. A researcher may begin a study by selecting one of the theories in his own area of interest. After selecting the particular theory, the researcher proceeds to deduce a hypothesis from this theory through symbolic logic or mathematics. This is possible only when the researcher has a versatile intellect and can make use of it for restructuring his experiences. Creative imagination is the product of an adventure, sound attitude and agile intellect. In the hypotheses formulation, the researcher works on numerous paths. He has to take a consistent effort and develop certain habits and attitudes. Moreover, the researcher has to saturate himself with all possible information about the problem and then think liberally at it and proceed further in the conduct of the study.
Analogy and other practices. Analogies also lead the researcher to clues that he might find useful in the formulation of hypotheses and for finding solutions to problems. For example, suppose a new situation resembles an old situation in regard to
a factor X. If the researcher knows from previous experience that the old situation is related to other factors Y and Z as well as to X, he reasons that perhaps a new situation is also related to Y and Z. The researcher, however, should use analogies with caution as they are not fool proof tools for finding solutions to problems. At times, conversations and consultations with colleagues and expert from different fields are also helpful in formulating important and useful hypotheses.
3.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. Some prior study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis "is testable if other deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation."
iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational hypothesis.
iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e. it must be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as being the most likely.
vii) The hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. The researcher should not select a problem which involves hypotheses that are not agreeable to testing within a reasonable and specified time. He must 63
know that there are problems that cannot be solved for a long time to come. These are problems of immense difficulty that cannot be profitably studied because of the lack of essential techniques or measures. viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain, it should have empirical reference.
3.9 HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND THEORY
When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’. Let us get acquainted with relevant terminologies used in hypothesis testing. Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis: In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk about null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative hypothesis as Ha. The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn. Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis, keeping the alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on the assumption that null hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with the alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis (at times also known as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.
a) The level of significance: This is very important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought and reason. In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H0 will be rejected when the sampling result (i.e. observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if H0 is true. In other words, the 5 percent level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as
a 5 percent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true. Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true and is usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.
b) The criteria for rejecting the null hypothesis may differ. Sometimes the null hypothesis is rejected only when the quantity of the outcome is so large that the probability of its having occurred by mere chance is 1 time out of 100. We consider the probability of its having occurred by chance to be too little and we reject the chance theory of the null hypothesis and take the occurrence to be due to a genuine tendency. On other occasions, we may be bolder and reject the null hypothesis even when the quantity of the reported outcome is likely to occur by chance 5 times out of 100.Statistically the former is known as the rejection of the null hypothesis at 0.1 level of significance and the latter as the rejection at 0.5 level. It may be pointed out that if the researcher is able to reject the null hypothesis, he cannot directly uphold the declarative hypothesis. If an outcome is not held to be due to chance, it does not mean that it is due to the very cause and effect relationship asserted in the particular declarative statement. It may be due to something else which the researcher may have failed to control.
c) Decision rule or test of hypothesis: Given a hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Ha we make a rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept H0 (i.e. reject Ha) or reject H0 (ie. accept Ha). For instance, if H0 is that a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items in it) against Ha that the lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it), then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. We might test 10 times in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort of basis is known as decision rule.
d) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests: In the context of hypothesis testing, these two terms are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say,
the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis.
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